通常来说，编程语言教程中的第一个程序应该在屏幕上打印“Hello, world”。在Swift中，可以用一行代码实现：
@@ -197,6 +197,499 @@+注意：为了获得最好的体验，在Xcode当中使用代码预览功能。代码预览功能可以让你编辑代码并实时看到运行结果。
使用let来声明常量，使用var来声明变量。一个常量的值在编译时并不需要获取，但是你只能为它赋值以此。也就是说你可以用常量来表示这样一个值：你只需要决定一次，但是需要使用很多次。
var myVariable = 42
+myVariable = 50
+let myConstant = 42
+常量或者变量的类型必须和你赋给它们的值一样。然而，声明时类型是可选的，声明的同时赋值的话，编译器会自动推断类型。在上面的例子中，编译器推断出myVariable是一个整数（integer）因为它的初始值是整数。
如果初始值没有提供足够的信息（或者没有初始值），那你需要在变量后面声明类型，用冒号分割。
+let implicitInteger = 70
+let implicitDouble = 70.0
+let explicitDouble: Double = 70
+++练习：创建一个常量，显式指定类型为
+Float并指定初始值为4。
值永远不会被隐式转换为其他类型。如果你需要把一个值转换成其他类型，请显式转换。
+let label = "The width is"
+let width = 94
+let widthLabel = label + String(width)
+++练习：删除最后一行中的
+String，错误提示是什么？
有一种更简单的把值转换成字符串的方法：把值写到括号中，并且在括号之前写一个反斜杠。例如：
+let apples = 3
+let oranges = 5
+let appleSummary = "I have \(apples) apples."
+let fruitSummary = "I have \(apples + oranges) pieces of fruit."
+++练习：使用
+\()来把一个浮点计算转换成字符串，并加上某人的名字，和他打个招呼。
使用方括号[]来创建数组和字典，并使用下标或者键（key）来访问元素。
var shoppingList = ["catfish", "water", "tulips", "blue paint"]
+shoppingList[1] = "bottle of water"
+
+var occupations = [
+ "Malcolm": "Captain",
+ "Kaylee": "Mechanic",
+]
+occupations["Jayne"] = "Public Relations"
+要创建一个空数组或者字典，使用初始化语法。
+let emptyArray = String[]()
+let emptyDictionary = Dictionary<String, Float>()
+如果类型信息可以被推断出来，你可以用[]和[:]来创建空数组和空字典——就像你声明变量或者给函数传参数的时候一样。
shoppingList = [] // 去逛街并买点东西
+使用if和switch来进行条件操作，使用for-in、for、while和do-while来进行循环。包裹条件和循环变量括号可以省略，但是语句体的大括号是必须的。
let individualScores = [75, 43, 103, 87, 12]
+var teamScore = 0
+for score in individualScores {
+ if score > 50 {
+ teamScore += 3
+ } else {
+ teamScore += 1
+ }
+}
+teamScore
+在if语句中，条件必须是一个布尔表达式——像if score { ... }这样的代码是错误的。
你可以一起使用if和let来处理值缺失的情况。有些变量的值是可选的。一个可选的值可能是一个具体的值或者是nil，表示值缺失。在类型后面加一个问号来标记这个变量的值是可选的。
var optionalString: String? = "Hello"
+optionalString == nil
+
+var optionalName: String? = "John Appleseed"
+var greeting = "Hello!"
+if let name = optionalName {
+ greeting = "Hello, \(name)"
+}
+++练习：把
+optionalName改成nil，greeting会是什么？添加一个else语句，当optionalName是nil时给greeting赋一个不同的值。
如果变量的可选值是nil，条件会判断为false，大括号中的代码会被跳过。如果不是nil，会将值赋给let后面的常量，这样代码块中就可以使用这个值了。
switch支持任意类型的数据以及各种比较操作——不仅仅是整数以及测试相等。
let vegetable = "red pepper"
+switch vegetable {
+case "celery":
+ let vegetableComment = "Add some raisins and make ants on a log."
+case "cucumber", "watercress":
+ let vegetableComment = "That would make a good tea sandwich."
+case let x where x.hasSuffix("pepper"):
+ let vegetableComment = "Is it a spicy \(x)?"
+default:
+ let vegetableComment = "Everything tastes good in soup."
+}
+++练习：删除
+default语句，看看会有什么错误？
运行switch中匹配到的子句之后，程序会退出switch语句，并不会继续向下运行，所以不需要在每个子句结尾写break。
你可以使用for-in来遍历字典，需要两个变量来表示每个键值对。
let interestingNumbers = [
+ "Prime": [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13],
+ "Fibonacci": [1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8],
+ "Square": [1, 4, 9, 16, 25],
+]
+var largest = 0
+for (kind, numbers) in interestingNumbers {
+ for number in numbers {
+ if number > largest {
+ largest = number
+ }
+ }
+}
+largest
+++练习：添加另一个变量来记录哪种类型的数字是最大的。
+
使用while来重复运行一段代码直到不满足条件。循环条件可以在开头也可以在结尾。
var n = 2
+while n < 100 {
+ n = n * 2
+}
+n
+
+var m = 2
+do {
+ m = m * 2
+} while m < 100
+m
+你可以在循环中使用..来表示范围，也可以使用传统的写法，两者是等价的：
var firstForLoop = 0
+for i in 0..3 {
+ firstForLoop += i
+}
+firstForLoop
+
+var secondForLoop = 0
+for var i = 0; i < 3; ++i {
+ secondForLoop += 1
+}
+secondForLoop
+使用..创建的范围不包含上界，如果想包含的话需要使用...。
使用func来声明一个函数，使用名字和参数来调用函数。使用->来指定函数返回值。
unc greet(name: String, day: String) -> String {
+ return "Hello \(name), today is \(day)."
+}
+greet("Bob", "Tuesday")
+++练习：删除
+day参数，添加一个参数来表示今天吃了什么午饭。
使用一个元组来返回多个值。
+func getGasPrices() -> (Double, Double, Double) {
+ return (3.59, 3.69, 3.79)
+}
+getGasPrices()
+函数的参数数量是可变的，用一个数组来获取它们：
+func sumOf(numbers: Int...) -> Int {
+ var sum = 0
+ for number in numbers {
+ sum += number
+ }
+ return sum
+}
+sumOf()
+sumOf(42, 597, 12)
+++练习：写一个计算参数平均值的函数。
+
函数可以嵌套。被嵌套的函数可以访问外侧函数的变量，你可以使用嵌套函数来重构一个太长或者太复杂的函数。
+func returnFifteen() -> Int {
+ var y = 10
+ func add() {
+ y += 5
+ }
+ add()
+ return y
+}
+returnFifteen()
+函数是一等公民，这意味着函数可以作为另一个函数的返回值。
+func makeIncrementer() -> (Int -> Int) {
+ func addOne(number: Int) -> Int {
+ return 1 + number
+ }
+ return addOne
+}
+var increment = makeIncrementer()
+increment(7)
+函数也可以当做参数传入另一个函数。
+func hasAnyMatches(list: Int[], condition: Int -> Bool) -> Bool {
+ for item in list {
+ if condition(item) {
+ return true
+ }
+ }
+ return false
+}
+func lessThanTen(number: Int) -> Bool {
+ return number < 10
+}
+var numbers = [20, 19, 7, 12]
+hasAnyMatches(numbers, lessThanTen)
+函数实际上是一种特殊的闭包，你可以使用{}来创建一个匿名闭包。使用in来分割参数并返回类型。
numbers.map({
+ (number: Int) -> Int in
+ let result = 3 * number
+ return result
+ })
+++练习：重写闭包，对所有奇数返回0.
+
有很多种创建闭包的方法。如果一个闭包的类型已知，比如作为一个回调函数，你可以忽略参数的类型和返回值。单个语句闭包会把它语句的值当做结果返回。
+你可以获取参数的数量——这个方法在非常短的闭包中很有用。一个被作为最后一个参数传入函数的时候可以直接出现在括号后面。
+sort([1, 5, 3, 12, 2]) { $0 > $1 }
+使用class和类名来创建一个类。类中属性的声明和常量、变量声明一样，唯一的区别就是它们的上下文是类。同样，方法和函数声明也一样。
class Shape {
+ var numberOfSides = 0
+ func simpleDescription() -> String {
+ return "A shape with \(numberOfSides) sides."
+ }
+}
+++练习：使用
+let添加一个常量属性，再添加一个接收一个参数的方法。
要创建一个类的实例，在类名后面加上括号。使用点语法来访问实例的属性和方法。
+var shape = Shape()
+shape.numberOfSides = 7
+var shapeDescription = shape.simpleDescription()
+这个版本的Shape类缺少了一些重要的东西：一个构造函数来初始化类实例。使用init来创建一个构造器。
class NamedShape {
+ var numberOfSides: Int = 0
+ var name: String
+
+ init(name: String) {
+ self.name = name
+ }
+
+ func simpleDescription() -> String {
+ return "A shape with \(numberOfSides) sides."
+ }
+}
+注意self被用来区别实例变量。当你创建实例的时候，像传入函数参数一样给类传入构造器的参数。每个属性都需要赋值——无论是通过声明（就像numberOfSides）还是通过构造器（就像name）。
如果你需要在删除对象之前进行一些清理工作，使用deinit创建一个析构函数。
子类的定义方法是在它们的类名后面加上父类的名字，用冒号分割。创建类的时候并不需要一个标准的根类，所以你可以忽略父类。
+子类如果要重写父类的方法的话，需要用override标记——如果没有添加override就重写父类方法的话编译器会报错。编译器同样会检测override标记的方法是否确实在父类中。
class Square: NamedShape {
+ var sideLength: Double
+
+ init(sideLength: Double, name: String) {
+ self.sideLength = sideLength
+ super.init(name: name)
+ numberOfSides = 4
+ }
+
+ func area() -> Double {
+ return sideLength * sideLength
+ }
+
+ override func simpleDescription() -> String {
+ return "A square with sides of length \(sideLength)."
+ }
+}
+let test = Square(sideLength: 5.2, name: "my test square")
+test.area()
+test.simpleDescription()
+++练习：创建
+NamedShape的另一个子类Circle，构造器接收两个参数，一个是半径一个是名称，实现area和describe方法。
属性可以有getter和setter。
+class EquilateralTriangle: NamedShape {
+ var sideLength: Double = 0.0
+
+ init(sideLength: Double, name: String) {
+ self.sideLength = sideLength
+ super.init(name: name)
+ numberOfSides = 3
+ }
+
+ var perimeter: Double {
+ get {
+ return 3.0 * sideLength
+ }
+ set {
+ sideLength = newValue / 3.0
+ }
+ }
+
+ override func simpleDescription() -> String {
+ return "An equilateral triagle with sides of length \(sideLength)."
+ }
+}
+var triangle = EquilateralTriangle(sideLength: 3.1, name: "a triangle")
+triangle.perimeter
+triangle.perimeter = 9.9
+triangle.sideLength
+在perimeter的setter中，新值的名字是newValue。你可以在set之后显示的设置一个名字。
注意EquilateralTriangle类的构造器执行了三步：
如果你不需要计算属性但是需要在设置一个新值之前运行一些代码，使用willSet和didSet。
比如，下面的类确保三角形的边长总是和正方形的边长相同。
+class TriangleAndSquare {
+ var triangle: EquilateralTriangle {
+ willSet {
+ square.sideLength = newValue.sideLength
+ }
+ }
+ var square: Square {
+ willSet {
+ triangle.sideLength = newValue.sideLength
+ }
+ }
+ init(size: Double, name: String) {
+ square = Square(sideLength: size, name: name)
+ triangle = EquilateralTriangle(sideLength: size, name: name)
+ }
+}
+var triangleAndSquare = TriangleAndSquare(size: 10, name: "another test shape")
+triangleAndSquare.square.sideLength
+triangleAndSquare.triangle.sideLength
+triangleAndSquare.square = Square(sideLength: 50, name: "larger square")
+triangleAndSquare.triangle.sideLength
+类中的方法和一般的函数有一个重要的区别，函数的参数名只在函数内部使用，但是方法的参数名需要在调用的时候显式说明（除了第一个参数）。默认情况下，方法的参数名和它在方法内部的名字一样，不过你也可以定义第二个名字，这个名字被用在方法内部。
+class Counter {
+ var count: Int = 0
+ func incrementBy(amount: Int, numberOfTimes times: Int) {
+ count += amount * times
+ }
+}
+var counter = Counter()
+counter.incrementBy(2, numberOfTimes: 7)
+处理变量的可选值时，你可以在操作（比如方法、属性和子脚本）之前加?。如果?之前的值是nil，?后面的东西都会被忽略，并且整个表达式返回nil。否则，?之后的东西都会被运行。在这两种情况下，整个表达式的值也是一个可选值。
使用enum来创建一个枚举。就像类和其他所有命名类型一样，枚举可以包含方法。
enum Rank: Int {
+ case Ace = 1
+ case Two, Three, Four, Five, Six, Seven, Eight, Nine, Ten
+ case Jack, Queen, King
+ func simpleDescription() -> String {
+ switch self {
+ case .Ace:
+ return "ace"
+ case .Jack:
+ return "jack"
+ case .Queen:
+ return "queen"
+ case .King:
+ return "king"
+ default:
+ return String(self.toRaw())
+ }
+ }
+}
+let ace = Rank.Ace
+let aceRawValue = ace.toRaw()
+++练习：写一个函数，通过比较它们的原始值来比较两个
+Rank值。
在上面的例子中，枚举原始值的类型是Int，所以你只需要设置第一个原始值。剩下的原始值会按照顺序赋值。你也可以使用字符串或者浮点数作为枚举的原始值。
使用toRaw和fromRaw函数来在原始值和枚举值之间进行转换。
if let convertedRank = Rank.fromRaw(3) {
+ let threeDescription = convertedRank.simpleDescription()
+}
+枚举的成员值是实际值，并不是原始值的另一种表达方法。实际上，如果原始值没有意义，你不需要设置。
+enum Suit {
+ case Spades, Hearts, Diamonds, Clubs
+ func simpleDescription() -> String {
+ switch self {
+ case .Spades:
+ return "spades"
+ case .Hearts:
+ return "hearts"
+ case .Diamonds:
+ return "diamonds"
+ case .Clubs:
+ return "clubs"
+ }
+ }
+
+}
+let hearts = Suit.Hearts
+let heartsDescription = hearts.simpleDescription()
+++练习：给
+Suit添加一个color方法，对spades和clubs返回“black”，对hearts和diamonds返回“red”。
注意，有两种方式可以引用Hearts成员：给hearts常量赋值时，枚举成员Suit.Hearts需要用全名来引用，因为常量没有显式指定类型。在switch里，枚举成员使用缩写.Hearts来引用，因为self的值已经知道是一个suit。已知变量类型的情况下你可以使用缩写。
使用struct来创建一个结构体。结构体和类有很多相同的地方，比如方法和构造器。它们结构体之间最大的一个区别就是
+结构体是传值，类是传引用。
struct Card {
+ var rank: Rank
+ var suit: Suit
+ func simpleDescription() -> String {
+ return "The \(rank.simpleDescription()) of \
+ (suit.simpleDescription())"
+ }
+}
+let threeOfSpades = Card(rank: .Three, suit: .Spades)
+let threeOfSpadesDescription = threeOfSpades.simpleDescription()
+++练习：给
+Card添加一个方法，创建一副完整的扑克牌并把每张牌的rank和suit对应起来。
一个枚举成员的实例可以有实例值。相同枚举成员的实例可以有不同的值。创建实例的时候传入值即可。实例值和原始值是不同的：枚举成员的原始值对于所有实例都是相同的，而且你是在定义枚举的时候设置原始值。
+例如，考虑从服务器获取日出和日落的时间。服务器会返回正常结果或者错误信息。
+enum ServerResponse {
+ case Result(String, String)
+ case Error(String)
+}
+
+let success = ServerResponse.Result("6:00 am", "8:09 pm")
+let failure = ServerResponse.Error("Out of cheese.")
+
+switch success {
+case let .Result(sunrise, sunset):
+ let serverResponse = "Sunrise is at \(sunrise) and sunset is at \(sunset)."
+case let .Error(error):
+ let serverResponse = "Failure... \(error)"
+}
+++练习：给
+ServerResponse和switch添加第三种情况。
注意如何从ServerResponse中提取日升和日落时间。
使用protocol来声明一个接口。
protocol ExampleProtocol {
+ var simpleDescription: String { get }
+ mutating func adjust()
+}
+类、枚举和结构体都可以实现接口。
+class SimpleClass: ExampleProtocol {
+ var simpleDescription: String = "A very simple class."
+ var anotherProperty: Int = 69105
+ func adjust() {
+ simpleDescription += " Now 100% adjusted."
+ }
+}
+var a = SimpleClass()
+a.adjust()
+let aDescription = a.simpleDescription
+
+struct SimpleStructure: ExampleProtocol {
+ var simpleDescription: String = "A simple structure"
+ mutating func adjust() {
+ simpleDescription += " (adjusted)"
+ }
+}
+var b = SimpleStructure()
+b.adjust()
+let bDescription = b.simpleDescription
+++练习：写一个实现这个接口的枚举。
+
注意声明SimpleStructure时候mutating关键字用来标记一个会修改结构体的方法。SimpleClass的声明不需要标记任何方法因为类中的方法经常会修改类。
使用extension来为现有的类型添加功能，比如添加一个计算属性的方法。你可以使用扩展来给任意类型添加协议，甚至是你从外部库或者框架中导入的类型。
extension Int: ExampleProtocol {
+ var simpleDescription: String {
+ return "The number \(self)"
+ }
+ mutating func adjust() {
+ self += 42
+ }
+}
+7.simpleDescription
+++练习：给
+Double类型写一个扩展，添加absoluteValue功能。
你可以像使用其他命名类型一样使用接口名——例如，创建一个有不同类型但是都实现一个接口的对象集合。当你处理类型是接口的值时，接口外定义的方法不可用。
+let protocolValue: ExampleProtocol = a
+protocolValue.simpleDescription
+// protocolValue.anotherProperty // Uncomment to see the error
+即使protocolValue变量运行时的类型是simpleClass，编译器会把它的类型当做ExampleProtocol。这表示你不能调用类在它实现的接口之外实现的方法或者属性。
在尖括号里写一个名字来创建一个泛型函数或者类型。
+func repeat<ItemType>(item: ItemType, times: Int) -> ItemType[] {
+ var result = ItemType[]()
+ for i in 0..times {
+ result += item
+ }
+ return result
+}
+repeat("knock", 4)
+你也可以创建泛型类、枚举和结构体。
+// Reimplement the Swift standard library's optional type
+enum OptionalValue<T> {
+ case None
+ case Some(T)
+}
+var possibleInteger: OptionalValue<Int> = .None
+possibleInteger = .Some(100)
+在类型名后面使用where来指定一个需求列表——例如，要限定实现一个协议的类型，需要限定两个类型要相同，或者限定一个类必须有一个特定的父类。
func anyCommonElements <T, U where T: Sequence, U: Sequence, T.GeneratorType.Element: Equatable, T.GeneratorType.Element == U.GeneratorType.Element> (lhs: T, rhs: U) -> Bool {
+ for lhsItem in lhs {
+ for rhsItem in rhs {
+ if lhsItem == rhsItem {
+ return true
+ }
+ }
+ }
+ return false
+}
+anyCommonElements([1, 2, 3], [3])
+++练习：修改
+anyCommonElements函数来创建一个函数，返回一个数组，内容是两个序列的共有元素。
简单起见，你可以忽略where，只在冒号后面写接口或者类名。<T: Equatable>和<T where T: Equatable>是等价的。
Swift是苹果在WWDC2014上发布的一款全新的编程语言，本书译自苹果官方的Swift教程《The Swift Programming Language》。
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